The Middle Kingdom's Imperial Ambitions: A History of Expansion and Domination
China's centuries-old quest for regional and global hegemony, masked by diplomatic rhetoric, is rooted in its strategic culture and dynastic legacy.
The Story:
The history of China's imperial ambitions and expansionist tendencies can be traced back thousands of years. From the founding of the Qin dynasty in 221 B.C. to the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1912 A.D., China's sovereign territory expanded by a factor of four. What began as a small nation in the Yellow River valley morphed into an imperial power that sought to dominate the region and eventually project its influence globally.
Despite the common perception of China as a peaceful civilization, the historical record tells a different story. Chinese dynasties regularly engaged in wars of conquest, annexing neighboring territories and subjugating foreign powers. As Dennis Bloodworth, the East correspondent of the Observer from 1956-77 and the first British journalist allowed to stay in communist China, noted, "It would be absurd to pretend that the Chinese had never been greedy for ground—they started life in the valley of the Yellow River and ended by possessing a gigantic empire." This pattern of behavior has continued under the rule of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with Beijing making territorial claims and asserting its dominance over the Asia-Pacific region. The challenge for U.S. policymakers lies in differentiating the CCP from the Chinese people, as the party's actions may not necessarily reflect the sentiments of the broader population.
The initial decision to engage China in the 1970's was spearheaded by President Richard Nixon and his Secretary of State, Kissinger. They recognized the opportunity presented by the rift between China and the Soviet Union and assessed China's potential - a burgeoning population ready to take a leading role in the global economy. This approach was a classic example of realpolitik, focusing on pragmatic strategies rather than moral considerations. The aim then at the height of the Cold War was to weaken the Soviet Union's influence by distancing its ally, the PRC, thereby limiting Soviet power projection in Eastern Europe and Southeast Asia. Nixon's strategy sought to fracture the Soviet alliance and create a divide between the Soviet Union and China.
During the final years of Nixon's life, his presidential speechwriter William Safire asked him about that fateful trip to Beijing in 1972. Had opening up to the PRC made Americans safer and China freer? According to Safire, "That old realist, who had played the China card to exploit the split in the Communist world, replied with some sadness that he was not as hopeful as he had once been: 'We may have created a Frankenstein.'" Over time, many in the United States have come to realize this predicament. Unfortunately, articulating that problem well has proved difficult.
Even in more recent history, China's expansionist tendencies have remained evident. During the Cold War, China invaded Vietnam within a decade of Nixon's famous visit to Beijing, belying the notion that China did not threaten the territorial integrity of its neighbors. Xi Jinping, the current leader of the CCP, has further solidified his power and positioned himself as a modern-day emperor. By securing a third term as the party's general secretary, Xi is breaking with the post-Mao tradition of collective leadership and establishing himself as the most dominant figure in Chinese politics since Mao Zedong.
Xi's foreign policy and economic initiatives, such as the Belt and Road program, are reminiscent of the tributary system of the imperial dynasties, where countries must align with Beijing's interests to gain access to its economic largesse. The implications of Xi's indefinite rule include the potential for increased political instability and unpredictable policymaking, as he seeks to restore China's "greatness" and reclaim its rightful place as the dominant power in Asia.
This transition mirrors the historical pattern of Chinese dynasties, where a strong ruler would emerge to rebuild the empire and assert China's regional hegemony. Like the emperors of old, Xi expects foreign leaders to acknowledge China's superiority and submit to its demands. He has invoked the "Chinese Dream" of national rejuvenation, echoing the language of past dynasties and their ambitions for regional and global hegemony. This mindset, rooted in China's long history of imperial expansion, poses a significant challenge to the existing international order.
Our View:
The historical evidence clearly demonstrates that China's imperial ambitions and expansionist tendencies are deeply ingrained in its strategic culture, dating back thousands of years. Contrary to the myth of China as a peaceful, satisfied empire, the reality is that Chinese dynasties have consistently sought to expand their territory and project their influence beyond their borders. A shallow understanding of China's history leads to incomplete conclusions about its present behavior, and policymakers often find it easier to avoid China's history entirely. Rather than seeking a simplistic view of the CCP's behavior, we must recognize that thousands of years of China's own history and strategic culture must be taken into account.
The rise of Xi Jinping as a modern-day emperor, with his concentration of power and his efforts to resurrect China's imperial legacy, is a concerning development that deserves close scrutiny. Xi's ambition to rebuild China's imperial power may sound fantastical to Western ears, but it fits within the sweep of Chinese history and the pattern of leaders emerging to restore imperial power. The CCP's behavior cannot be simplified to its current Communist Party overlords, and policymakers must grapple with the possibility that even a democratized China may still harbor a propensity for hegemonic ambitions.
Rather than seeking a democratic China that aligns with Western values, policymakers must grapple with the possibility that even a democratized China may still harbor a propensity for hegemonic ambitions. The CCP's heritage and China's strategic culture, shaped by millennia of imperial expansion, cannot be ignored or wished away. The West must approach China's rise with clear-eyed realism and a deep understanding of its historical context, lest it fall victim to the same delusions that have plagued past American policymakers. As Xi Jinping consolidates his power and pursues his vision of a "Chinese Dream," the international community must be prepared to confront a new era of potential conflict and competition. The Middle Kingdom's ambitions are not limited to its immediate sphere of influence; they extend to the aspiration of becoming the dominant global power, a goal that poses a direct challenge to the existing liberal international order. Navigating this complex and precarious landscape will require a strategic approach grounded in a nuanced appreciation of China's history and its enduring imperial impulses.
TLDR:
China's history of expansion and imperialism contradicts the myth of its "splendid isolation" and "limited territorial ambition."
From the Qin dynasty to the Qing, China's sovereign territory expanded four-fold, transforming it into an "imperial wrecking ball."
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has continued this legacy of expansionism, leveraging its economic and diplomatic might to assert control over its neighbors and reshape the global order.
Xi Jinping's consolidation of power and his emulation of imperial Chinese rulers suggest a return to the Middle Kingdom's ambitions of political and cultural dominance. - Understanding China's strategic culture, shaped by millennia of dynastic rule and civilizational greatness, is crucial for effectively countering the CCP's imperial ambitions. - American policymakers have long overlooked China's history, instead framing the "China problem" as an ideological challenge, without recognizing the deeply rooted nature of its expansionist tendencies.
The CCP's efforts to enmesh itself with the Chinese people, using nationalism as a rhetorical shield, have often obfuscated the distinction between the party and the people, complicating U.S. policy. - Xi's emergence as a modern-day emperor, with ambitions to restore China's regional and global dominance, poses a significant challenge to the existing international order.
Insights From:
Xi’s Imperial Ambitions Are Rooted in China’s History – Foreign Policy